Past paper Answers
- Use examples from your
sport to describe “the need to achieve” personality characteristic
Nach
- Likes a challenge/take risks
- Not afraid of failing
- Likes feedback
- Sees failure as an essential
aspect on the road to success
- Is more competitive/approach
behaviour/outcome behaviour/wan to win
- Generally high achievers
- More persistent on tasks/doesn’t
give in
- Takes responsibility/internal
attributions
- High self efficacy/is confident
- Use examples from your
sport to describe “the need to avoid failure” personality characteristic.
Naf
- Does not like challenge/take
easy route/avoid risks
- Avoids competitive situations/avoidance
behaviour/want to avoid shame
- Dislikes feedback/only interested
in positive feedback
- Low self efficacy/lack confidence
- Gives up easily/may not complete
task
- Does not take responsibility
for own actions
- Attributes success externally
- Prone to learned helplessness
- Attributes failure internally/externally
- Using a practical example,
explain how a coach could encourage a performer to adopt a need to achieve
rather than a need to avoid failure
- Raises self esteem/give success/
raise confidence/ achievable goals
- Set performance/process goals
- Show successful models/vicarious
experiences/ role models
- Verbal persuasion/ give encouragement/
give positive reinforcement/reminder of past performance accomplishments
- Lower arousal levels/calm
them down/ give relaxation strategies
- Attributional retaining/attribute
internally rather than externally/decrease shame linked to failure
- What are the
possible psychological effects on a sports performer when an audience
is present?
- Arousal/drive/anxiety increased
- Dominant response/habit more
likely to occur/learned responses automatic/motor programmes are run
- Weaker players/ novices performance
deteriorates ( incorrect dominant response)/ good performances from
well learned/stronger/elite
- Extroverts likely to perform
better with an audience/ reticular-acting system (RAS) favours
extroverts when audience present/introverts likely to perform worse
with audience present/ RAS does not favour introverts
- Gross skills performance may
increase/fine skills performance may decrease
- Simple skills performance
may increase/complex skills performance may decrease
- If audience in familiar setting
performance helped/ home field advantage/disadvantage/unfamiliar
- Anxiety raised by being judged/perceived
judgement of other/ evaluation apprehension
- The nature of the audience/
significant others
- Size/proximity of the audience/how
close the crowd are to the player
- Distractions – conflict
theory
- Hostile/partisan crowd behaviour
- Attention narrowing/widening/cue
utilization
- If an individual performance
is inhibited by the effects of an audience, how could a coach help the
performer to overcome these effects?
- Use of selective attention/
concentration/avoiding distractions/block out crowd
- Mental rehearsal/practice/imagery/visualisation
- Positive self-talk/positive
thinking/negative thought stopping
- Practice with an audience
present/in training
- Learn skills thoroughly/develop
motor programmes
- Decrease importance of event/reduce
perceived accountability
- Increase self confidence/self
efficacy/social support/ encouragement from others
- Define the term aggression
as used in sports psychology. Use social learning theory to explain
how aggressive behaviour in sport is learned.
- Intent to harm/ injure outside
the rules of the game/ illegal/violent
- Learn behaviour from significant
others/ role models
- Watching/ observing others
who are aggressive likely to be copied/ vicarious processes
- Reinforcement of aggressive
behaviour will increase chance of copying
- Copying more likely if same
sex/ attitude/ age/ ability
- Live/ realistic models more
likely to be copied.
- Give four cognitive strategies
a performer might use to eliminate aggressive tendencies in sport?
- Count to ten/mantra/concentrate
on repeating words/phrases
- Imagery/imagine calm/control/quiet
place
- Mental rehearsal of activity/
imagining ones own actual movement
- Forgetting/distancing from
aggressive cures/walking away/ removing yourself from situation/ thought
stopping
- Displace feelings/ play harder/
take it out on someone/ something else
- Take up an activity, which
will release tension/ aggression/ take an interest/ be motivated by
non aggression
- Reasoning with ones- self
that aggression is wrong/ remembering consequences/ recognising implications
of aggression/ knowing he punishments/ self talk/ positive thinking
- What are the main qualities
of a leader
- Can communicate effectively
- Is driven/highly motivated/
enthusiastic/ reliable/ determined
- Can motivate/ influence others/
charisma/ has presence/ is respected
- Has a clear vision/mission/goals/
ambitious/ good decision- maker
- Empathy/ understanding needs
of others
- Good knowledge of the sport/
activity/ experienced
- Good practitioners/ good at
the sport themselves/ show right attitude
- Explain the different circumstances
that would demand a task orientated style by a leader.
- when discipline and control
is needed/ hostile groups
- If lack of time
- For large groups
- In early stage/ cognitive
stage of learning/ beginner
- For team players who generally
prefer training and instruction style
- Males prefer autocratic style
- If in a dangerous situation
- (Fiedler) task style better
in situations that are extremely favourable and extremely unfavourable/
extremes of favourableness
- When task is clear and unambiguous
- If leaders personality is
task orientated/ autocratic/ authoritarian
- Explain the different
circumstances that would demand a social orientated style by a leader.
- when a group members can/
wish to participate in decision making/ those who prefer democratic
approach
- For more advanced performers
who have knowledge to contribute
- To motivate group members/
ownership/ feel valued
- If demands of situation is
social ( friendly match)
- When task demands greater
interpersonal communication
- If leader and group members
are well known to each other
- Females prefer democratic/
social approach
- Task structure is not dangerous
- For small number/ individuals
- (fiedler) In situations that
are moderately favourable
- If leaders personality lends
itself to democratic/ social approach
- Use practical examples
to describe the components of a positive attitude towards training and
performance. What influences a positive attitude to training and performance?
Components of a positive
attitude
- Cognitive – cognitive element/
a belief that training/ playing well is worth while
- Affective element – emotional
aspect ensures enjoyment/ positive feelings towards training/ likes
training.
- Behavioural element – behaviour
towards training shows commitment/ persistence/ high level of effort/
attends training
Influences for a positive attitude
- Socialisation/ how you are
brought up/ adopting norms from you culture/ religion/ expected behaviour
- Past experiences/ past success/
winning/ perceived high ability/ previous enjoyment/ fulfilment
- Significant others/ peers/
friends/ family/ role models/ elite athletes you look up to/ coaches/
teachers
- Media/ portrayal of others
with positive attitudes.
- Mental preparation is
an important aspect of sport, One of these aspects is commitment, identify
three other aspects
- Confidence/ self confidence/
self efficacy/ competitive orientation/ state/ trait sports confidence
- Concentration/ attentional
control/ cue utilisation
- Control/ emotional control/
control of arousal/ anxiety/ reaching and maintaining peak flow/ anxiety
management/ cognitive/ somatic anxiety management/ motivation
- The setting of goals is
an important element of commitment. What are the psychological effects
on the sports performer of setting goals?
- To give confidence/ raise
self efficacy
- To raise/ lower/ control/
optimise arousal and give drive/ motivation/ decrease anxiety/ helps
you to cope
- Gives a focus for efforts/
a target to aim for/ directs attention
- A steeping stone to success/
enables success
- To regulate amount of effort
for a particular task/ don’t waste energy
- Develop strategies to reach
goals.
- Giving practical examples,
explain what is meant by product, performance and process goals to improve
performance. What factors should be taken into consideration when these
goals are set?
- Product goals associated with
outcome/ end result/ beating other e.g. to win the league
- Performance concerned with
improving own performance/ comparison of self with previous attempt
e.g. time achieved for 100m compared with previous time
- Process technique/ tactics/
how a movement is performed e.g. finger/ wrist movement in cricket bowling
Factors to take into consideration
when setting goals.
- Specific/ clear goals
- Measurable/ assessment possible/
evaluated
- Agreed/ shared goals/ have
common ownership/ purpose
- Realistic/ within reach/ not
to easy/ not too difficult/ relevant/ challenging/ achievable
- Time phased/ goals spilt up
into short medium – long term/ incremental/ step by step
- Exciting/ motivating/ stimulating/
should be enjoyable
- Recorded / monitoring of progress
- What is meant by self
efficacy? By using examples from sport show how a coach could assist
a sports performer to raise their level of self efficacy?
- Self efficacy is the amount
of self confidence in a specific situation/ expectation of success in
a particular task
Strategies to assist in the raising
of self efficacy
- Previous accomplishments/
prior success/ previous positive outcomes
- Vicarious experiences/ show
successful role models of similar age/ ability
- Verbal persuasion/ encouragement
- Emotional control/ control
arousal level/ calming strategies/ somatic or cognitive stress management
techniques
- Give success/ ensure task
is achievable/ achievable goals.
- Attributional retraining.
- What is meant by attentional
control?
- Control of concentration/
focus ( not control attention
- Attentional field recognised/
relevant cues need to be picked out from display for success to occur
- Broad and narrow dimension
- External and internal dimension
- (Broad) attention takes into
account a lot of information/ peripheral stimuli
- (Narrow) – attention is
on very few stimuli/ concentrate on small amount of stimuli/ informational
cues
- (External) – Focus is on
environment stimuli/ focus directed outwards
- (Internal) – Focus on own
feelings / emotions/ thoughts
- How can attentional styles
can affect a sports performer ability to enter the zone of optimal functioning
to achieve a “peak flow” experience?
- Peak flow experience requires
control of arousal/ emotions/ drive/ motivation
- (ZOF) relates to the optimum
arousal level for optimum performance/ the right amount of drive to
succeed/ feelings and actions that are intrinsically satisfying/ feeling
good and playing well.
- Attention that is misplaced/
wrong type of attention
- Wrong levels of arousal/emotions
( too high or too low)
- Internal attention that is
confident more likely to achieve ZOF/ too much external attention hinders
entry into ZOF
- If stress/ anxiety felt then
external focus may help
- Strategies/ try to forget
the pain/ distract yourself away
- Stressful stimuli ( looking
at the environment to try and forget the pain of long distance running
- Elite use more associative
internal strategies in ZOF
- Recreative athletes use more
dissociative strategies ( the best runners deal with their own pain
in competition and are in tune with their bodies
- If attention is on enjoyment
of activity more likely for ZOF / If activity is not enjoyed less likely
to go into ZOF
- Some have positive attentional
traits/ have ability for both broad and narrow focus/ both broad and
narrow and more likely for ZOF ( player can check positions of others
but be aware of own movements
- Some have negative attentional
traits/ some are easily distracted/ too much external and internal stimuli/
ineffective attenders/ cognitive overload ( player confused/ distracted
by movement of other, the crowd and their own feelings)
- Increased/ over arousal results
in less scanning of attentional field/ taken by surprise/ not expecting
a response by an opponent/ missing important cues
- Cue – utilisation can lead
to ZOF
- Concentration on cues that
are the most relevant is important for ZOF to occur
- The more distracted you are
the less likely you are to reach ZOF
- How can the technique
of imagery help sport performance
- Improves concentration by
mental selection of cues/ escape distractions
- Raises confidence by picturing
success
- Control arousal level/ relaxation/
through visualisation/ imagining success/ personal accomplishments
- To replicate the feeling of
success/ kinesthesis
- To manage emotions/ imagine
feeling good/ lower stress
- Imagining cues can decrease
response time/ preparation to respond
- Different strategies can be
rehearsed/ faults corrected mentally
- Mental practice without public
failure
- Enables injured performer
to be cognitively active
- Outline the trait and
Interactionist approaches to personality and sport.
Trait
- Born with innate/ genetically
determined
- Traits are behaviours that
are pre determined rather than learned
- Enduring/ stable/ predictable
Interactionist
- Traits are triggered by environment/
situational factors
- B = F(PE) Is the result of
personality traits and the environment interacting/ combination of trait
and social learning
- Giving examples from sport,
explain the view that we develop our personalities by imitating others.
- Reactions from other reinforce
behaviour
- Others must be significant
to use/ we must value them/ role models whose behaviour is deemed to
be acceptable
- Others behaviour may be copied
because the reinforcement comes from a third party who is significant
e.g. a players behaviour is copied because a highly values coach praises
the behaviour
- Bandura’s experiment showed
aggressive behaviour is imitated if model’s significant
- Socialisation/ adopting norms
and values of your culture is learned by observing others
- Importance of parental behaviour/
personalities in shaping the personalities of the young
- If model is deemed to be relevant
– more likely to be copied e.g. boys more likely to copy male models.
- If the model is similar to
the observer then behaviour more likely to be copied
- Friendly models more likely
to be copied
- Powerful/ authoritative more
likely to copied
- If model’s behaviour is
consistent then more likely to be copied.
- Identify three characteristics
of an effective leader in sport
- Good communication skills
- Highly motivated/ enthusiastic/
ambitious
- Clear goal/ vision/ good decision
making skills/ good perceptual skills
- Empathy/ gets on well with
team mates/ can see other points of view
- Good at sport themselves
- Good knowledge of the sport/
self confidence
- Charismatic/ has presence/
commands respect/ influential/ motivator
- Flexible to situational needs/
adaptable
- Using Fiedler’s
contingency model of leadership, explain when you might use the task
style and person oriented style of leadership in sport.
- Model identified leadership
characteristics/ styles interact with the situation/ Interactionist/
situational approach
- The effectiveness of these
styles depends upon the favourableness of the situation
- Favourableness depends on
the relationship between the leader and group members
- Favourableness depends on
the leaders perceived power/ authority/ how important the leader is
seen to be
- Task leader more effective
in moderately favourable situations
- Favourable is when relationships
are good
- Favourable is when the task
is clear
- Favourable is when the leader
has authority
- Unfavourable is when relationships
are poor
- Unfavourable is when the task
is unclear
- Unfavourable is when the leader
has a weak position.
- Explain how you would
use attribution retraining to promote mastery orientation and avoid
learned helplessness.
For mastery orientation
- Learned helplessness is the
belief that failure is inevitable/ failure has been reinforced
- Mastery orientation is having
high self confidence/ positive outlook/ need to achieve
- Attributional retraining is
changing/ helping to change the reasons to maximise motivation
- Attribute success to internal
factors/ increase confidence
- Attribute success to stable
factors/ increases belief of future success
- Attribute success to controllable
factors/ increases motivation
For learned helplessness
- Attribute failure to external
factors/ maintains confidence
- Attribute failure to unstable
factors/ increase belief of future success
- Attribute failure to controllable
factors/ maintains motivation
- Set realistic targets/ process/
performance goals
- Describe the different
types and sources of anxiety in sport.
- Often due to fear of failing/
importance of event
- Fear of being threatened,
fear of injury, fear of hostile crown/ players/ proximity of crowd
- Fear of being embarrassed/
self esteem being harmed/ fear of pride being hurt
- When arousal is high more
likely to get anxious/ vice versa
- Anxiety can be somatic/ body
response/ heart rate raised/ blood pressure raised
- Anxiety can be cognitive/
of the mind/ worry/ apprehension/ feeling of helplessness
- Competitive anxiety/ anxiety
caused by competition/ pressure of trying to win
- Trait anxiety – anxiety
that is in guilt/ genetically determined/ natural anxiety
- State anxiety – anxiety
arising from a specific situation/ incident/ person/ environment/ past
experience/ previous failure
- Multi – dimensional anxiety/
theory/ interaction of both cognitive and somatic/ one triggers the
other
- Perceived judgement from others/
evaluation apprehension.
- Using examples from sport,
explain how anxiety can be managed to improve performance
- Mental rehearsal/ going through
the actions in mind
- Imagery/ imagining success/
doing the activity correctly/ imagine not being anxious/ a calm place
- Meditation/ mantra
- Positive self talk/ convincing
yourself that you will succeed/ reasoning with yourself
- Positive reinforcement by
someone else/ influence of others who are significant/ behaviour modification
- Negative thought stopping/
stop doubt/ block out negative thoughts
- Block out distractions
- Muscular relaxation/ gradually
relaxing all the major muscle groups/ tense muscles and then relax them/
deep breathing
- Biofeedback/ being aware of
how your body feels and then dealing with the tension
- Removal from the situation/
stimulus that is causing worry
- Flooding/ over stimulated
by stress stimulus so that you able to deal with real stressful anxious
situations/ more experience of anxious situations/ more competition
- Duplicating the real game,
competition in training to get used to the stressful stimuli, recorded
crowd noise/ fans in to watch training
- Raising confidence
- Give success/ make task easier/
goals that are achievable
- Explain the personality
characteristics and situational factors, which would encourage a
“Need to achieve” personality
Personality
- Innate personality characteristic/
natural traits/ enduring
- Drive to achieve success/
high achievers
- Outcome orientated/ approach
behaviour/
- Want a challenge/ excitement/
takes risks
- Persistent on task/ sticks
to the job in hand/ determined
- Take responsibility for actions/
does not fear failure
- Likes feedback/ likes evaluation/
sees failure as a step to success
Situational
factors
- Likes competitive situations
- Challenging yet achievable
e.g. 50/50
- Needs high incentive value
of success
- Home/ Away effects/ familiarity/
hostility/ new situations/ unexpected
- Level of danger
- Presence of others/ encouragement/
praise from others
- What does social loafing
mean and how is it caused.
- This is the loss of personal
responsibility
- Withdraw effort and motivation
Caused by:
- Lack of accountability
- No identifiable role/ individuals
not valued
- Lack of self confidence
- High level of anxiety ( trait
and/ or state)
- Injury/ illness
- Off the pitch problems/ psychological/
emotional/ social issues
- Incorrect strategies/ tactics
by coach
- Effects of the crowd
- Perceived/ actual low ability/
learned helplessness/ attribute to internal stable factors/ negative
past experience
- Situational stressors/ weather/
unfamiliar surroundings
- Perception other are not trying
- As a coach of a sports
team explain how you would limit the effects of social loafing and improve
the cohesiveness of your team.
- Select those who are less
likely to social loaf from past experience/ team players
- Give credit for personal success/
highlight individual performance/ reward assists
- Set/ emphasise appropriate
goals
- Clarify/ give individual responsibility/
roles
- Punish social loafing/ non
cohesive play/ drop from team
- Co-ordination practice/ set
plays
- Encouragement/ social support/
encourage friendship/. Team building exercises
- Reinforce/ praise/ reward
teamwork and cohesive behaviour
- Encourage group identity/
belonging
- Good leadership ( with qualification)
- Identify what causes anxiety
in sport
- Competition/ evaluation/ importance/
situational factors
- Conflict
- Frustration
- Perceived low ability/ poor
play/ poor officials decisions/
- injury/ illness
- Perceived danger
- Trait anxiety – natural
tendency fro anxiety/ genetic
- State anxiety – Over arousal
in specific situation
- Lack of self confidence
- Cognitive – psychological/
mental anxiety/ irritability/ worrying
- Somatic – Physiological/
bodily reactions/ raising heart rate/ blood pressure/ adrenaline
- Explain what strategies
you could use to manage your cognitive and somatic anxiety in sports
setting.
- Relaxation/ Progressive relaxation
techniques ( PRT)
- Biofeedback
- Positive thinking/ negative
thought stopping/ self talk/ rational thinking/ imagery/ visualisation/
mental rehearsal
- Selective attention
- Setting SMARTER goals
- Reinforce/ recognise personal
success/ positive reinforcement/ past experiences
- Practice to build motor programmes/
become more physically proficient/ over learning
- The effect of an audience
on a sports performer can either help or hinder performance depending
on a number of factors. Using examples from sport identify and explain
these factors?
- Competition factors/ level
of competition/ importance of event/ friendly v league
- The other competitors/ the
nature of the opponents / close rivals/ local derby/ co- action effects
- Social reinforcement/ crown
getting behind you/ supporting/ encouraging
- Hostile/ away game may hinder/
home/ away effect / home field advantage
- Evaluation apprehension/ perception
that the audience are judging/ talent scout/ selector.
- Noise of crown/ physical proximity/
size of crowd
- Arousal level is increased/
optimal arousal / peak flow
- Therefore dominant response
more likely
- Perception of skill/ ability
level
- If performer is well skilled
this can help autonomous phase
- If performer is a novice this
can hinder/ cognitive phases
- The nature of the task/ skill
- If task is gross/ simple/
dynamic more likely to help
- If task is fine/ complex more
likely to hinder
- Personality factors
- Hype A/ High Anxiety personalities
/ High A Trait/ High trait anxiety/ NAF inhibits performance/ TAF
- Type B/ Low anxiety/ NACH
enhances performance / TAS
- Extroverts seek situations
with high arousal so may do better with audience/ introvert do not seek
external stimulation therefore may do less well
- Caused by reticular system/
RAS/ extroverts have low level of internal arousal/ introverts have
high levels of internal arousal
- Attentional control changes/
narrow or broad which may affect performance/ can be distracted/ can
be more focuses/ distraction – conflict theory.
- Confidence is important
to an accomplished sports performer. How would a teachers or coach raise
the confidence level of a novice in sport?
- Performance accomplishments/
give success/ give achievable goals
- Vicarious experiences/ show
others performing well/ use of role models/ demonstrations
- Verbal persuasion/ encouragement/
positive reinforcement/ praise/ positive feedback/ encourage satisfaction
- Control of arousal/ calm them
down/ cognitive/ somatic relaxation
- Mental rehearsal/ mental practice/
self belief
- Level of sport specific state
confidence should be raised/ increase/ enhance trait sport confidence
- Positive attribution/ re attribution/
attribute failure to unstable factors/ attribute success to stable factors.
- Be non competitive with skill
learning/ process/ performance goals
- Using examples from sport,
describe what is meant by an attitude in sport.
- Attitude is a predisposition
towards an attitude object e.g. training or participation in sport/
set of beliefs and feelings
- Cognitive element/ a belief
about training/ playing well/ participation
- Affective element/ emotional
aspect such as enjoyment/ positive feelings/ hostility/ negative feelings
towards training/ playing/ well / participation
- Behavioural element/ behaviour
towards training, playing shows commitment, sticking to the task.
- Explain how attitude in
sport can be formed?
- Past experience/ previous
matches
- Attribution / internal attributions
to past success or failure
- Learned helplessness / reinforced
failure
- Significant others/ reinforcement
from role models, imitating and copying parents or peers or sports stars.
- Socialisation/ cultural expectations
adopting the norms of your culture
- Media/TV
- Religious beliefs
- In the presence of other
- Identify undesirable prejudice
that might be found in sport and explain how such an attitude might
be changed.
- A prejudice such as racism
ageism sexism
- Cognitive dissonance may change
attitudes/change one element of the triadic model and other elements
will change to gain consonance
- Use of significant other/
role models to persuade/ persuasive communication
- Influence beliefs/ cognitive
aspect to show how undesirable
- Influence emotions/ affective
aspect to show how undesirable
- Influence behaviour directly/
use of praise for no prejudice behaviour/ use of punishment or negative
reinforcement for prejudicial behaviour
- Using Psychological theories
and practical examples, explain possible positive and negative effects
of an audience on sports performance?
- (Drive theory) –
arousal/ anxiety increased
- (drive theory) dominant
response most likely to occur, learned responses automatic
- Weaker players performance
deteriorates
- Good performance from well
learned/ stronger/ elite/ correct dominant responses
- RAS personality theory
- extroverts likely to perform better with an audience
- RAS - Introverts likely
to perform worse with an audience present
- Home field theory –
if audience in familiar setting performance helped. Home field advantage
- Evaluation apprehension
– anxiety raised by being judged/ perceived judgement of others
- Proximity theory -
Proximity of the audience/how close the crowd are to the payers
- Cue utilisation –
distractions/ widening of attentional focus
- Attentional control
– attention narrows for those who are used to audience / high levels
of ability.
- Describe the strategies
that may be used to combat the effects of social inhibition
- Use of selective attention/
concentration avoiding distractions focus on cues within play only
- Mental rehearsal/ practise/
imagery/ visualisation
- Positive self talk/ positive
thinking / negative thought stopping
- Practise with an audience
present in training
- Learn skills thoroughly/ develop
motor programmes
- Decrease importance of event/
reduce perceived accountability
- Increase self confidence/
self efficacy
- Social support/ encouragement
form others, positive reinforcement
- Knowing your zone of optimum
functioning
- Describe and explain two
main theories of personality in sport
Trait
- Trait/genetic approach shows
that we are born with our personality characteristics
- Traits are enduring/ we express
our personalities consistently
- Type A trait shows high levels
of personal anxiety/ stress
- Type B shows low levels of
personal anxiety/ stress
Interactionist
- Influence of environment –
Interactionist approach involved traits combining/ interacting with
the environment B=F(PE) / mixture of trait and social learning theory
- Cue – the environment trigger/
acts as a cue for the appearance of a trait
- Hollander role) Social environment/
situation affects role related behaviours/ how we behave in a particular
situation
- Hollander trait – Core characteristics
that is enduring / semi permanent
- Traits may be dominant –
If situational factors are not strong then traits dominate behaviour
Social Learning
- Copy – Social learning stated
that we learn / copy our personalities from others
- Role models – If significant/
role model then personality characteristics more likely to be copied/
imitated
- Early influences – Early
learning from parents/ carers can affecr the characteristics we
copy
- Fit into society – Socialisation
/ characteristics are copied if it enables us to adopt the norms and
values of our culture / to fit in to be accepted from others into a
group
- Identify the qualities
of an effective leader in sport
- Charismatic/ a natural leader/
commands respect/ has personal authority
- Goof communicator
- Can motivate and encourage
- Empathetic / can put themselves
in the shoes of others
- High level of knowledge
- High level of personal skill
- Well organised/ can structure
approach effectively
- Trusts/ believes/ respects
those they lead.
- Explain how factors other
than personality can affect the type of leadership styles adopted in
a sports situation
- (Task) effected by
the type of task/ what sport/ skill/ actions being carried out
- (clarity of task) –
If clear task then task/ autocratic style more effective
- (complex tasks) if
situation demands high levels of information processing/ decision making
then democratic style best
- (Arousal) – of task
requires high arousal/ dynamism required the task/ autocratic style
better
- (Danger) if task dangerous
then task/ autocratic style is best
- (problem solving) –
of tasks demand problem solving then laissez fairer best
- (environment) – the
situation/ environment affects style adopted
- (Hostile) – if situation
hostile tasks/ autocratic style maybe best
- (Extremes) – If situation
extremely favourable/ unfavourable then autocratic is best
- (Moderate) if situation moderately
favourable them democratic best
- (Preferred style) the
preferred style of the group can affect / characteristics of group
- (Age) – Youth prefer
autocratic/ adults/ elderly prefer democratic style
- (Skill Level) – If
highly skilled group members then laissez faire style better
- Using practical examples
identify some of the causes of aggression in sport
- Perceived/ actual unfairness
e.g. ref / Poor decisions
- Frustration e.g. over poor
performance/ losing
- Displaced aggressions/ other
influences outside of sport
- Hostile crowd
- High expectations/ pressure
to perform/ win
- Others aggression/ retaliation/
copying
- To be accepted in a group
/ peer pressure
- Cultural determinants / it
is expected
- Game determinants/ expected/
norms in the game
- Personality characteristics
- To intimidate/ dominate opponent
- Rivalry/ local derby/ previous
ill feeling
- using psychological theories
and practical examples from sport, explain aggressive behaviour
- (Instinct/ nature theory)
– Instinct/ natural/ innate tendencies
- (Frustration/ aggression
hypotheses) – Frustration – aggression hypotheses/ frustrating
circumstances blocks your goal
- (Catharsis) – To
achieve catharsis / to feel better to release frustration
- (Aggressive cue hypotheses)
– Aggressive cur hypotheses/ signals/ cues stimuli cause aggression
- Because cue is identified
with expected/ desired behaviour
- (Social learning/Bandura)
Social learning need to copy
- To be significant other/ role
models
- Copying more likely if similar
model e.g. gender/ age / ability
- Males more likely to be physically
aggressive than females
- Live/ realistic models more
likely to be copied
- (Socialisation) –
Socialisation/ cultural and values determined by your behaviour
- (S-R) – Conditioned
response/ S-R bond that has been learned/ operant conditioning
- (operant/ reinforcement) –
You get praise/ reinforcement aggression will reoccur
- Describe methods that
can be used to eliminate aggressive tendencies in sport.
- Cognitive techniques/ lower
psychological arousal
- Count to ten / mantra/ concentrate
on repeating words/ Positive self talk
- Imagery/ imagine calm/ control/
quiet place
- Mental rehearsal of activity/
imagining ones own actual movement
- Forgetting/ distancing from
aggressive cues/ walking away removing yourself from the situation
- Displace feelings , play harder
in the game, take aggression out on someone else or something else
- Take up an activity which
can release tension/ aggression/ be motivated by non aggression
- Reasoning with ones self that
aggression is wrong/ remembering consequences/ rational thinking knowing
the punishment
- Somatic techniques/ lower
somatic/ physiological arousal
- Relaxation/ progressive relaxation
techniques/ breathing exercises
- Use biofeedback/ information
on physiological arousal is recognised and dealt with
- Yoga
- Give role of responsibility
- What is meant by concentration
in sports performance
- Attentional field/ style recognised/
realise what you need to maintain focus
- Relevant cues need to be picked
out from display ( for success to occur) cue utilisation / Selective
attention
- Using examples from sport
explain the effect of different attentional styles on performance
- (Nideffer) – Broad
and narrow dimension
- External and internal dimension
- (Broad) – Attention
takes into account a lot of information/ peripheral stimuli/ can enable
performer to take in peripheral information
- (Narrow) – attention
is on very few stimuli/ concentrate on small amount of stimuli/ information/
cues/ can enable performer to focus on import element in the environment/
watch the ball
- (External) – focus
is on the environment stimuli/ focus directed outwards
- (Internal) – Focus
on themselves/ emotions/ thoughts
Effects
- (External) – can
enable performer to concentrate on outside factors can escape inner
pain/ exhaustion
- (Internal) – performer
can concentrate on feeling good/ zone of optimal functioning
- Information overload/ too
much information can cause confusion
- The right attention can enable
to deal effectively with distractions / will not be put off
- Effective attention will improve
reactions/ reaction time
- Effective attention can prevent
negative feelings
- Enables positive attributions
- Good performers can draw on
a range/ combination of different styles
- Attentional style linked to
type of skill/ sport.
- Describe the characteristics
of performer who need to achieve in sport?
- Approach behaviour/ tendency
to approach success
- (NACH) very competitive
- Likes a challenge
- Likes/ seeks feedback
- Takes risks/ high confidence
- Not afraid to fail/ views
failure as a route of success
- Attributes success internally
- Attributes success to stable
factors
- Attributes failures to unstable
factors
- Attribute failure to controllable
factors
- Explain what is meant
by learned helplessness in sport?
- Feelings/ affective response/
emotion
- Liked to hopelessness/ being
useless/ having low ability/ failing inevitable
- Due to perceived/ actual failure/
poor past experiences
- Failure reinforced by others
- Avoidance behaviours/ hides
from responsibility/ seeks to escape/ lack of persistence/ gives up
easily/ not try from their best
- Attribute failure to internal
factors
- Attribute failure from stables
factors
- Attribute failure to uncontrollable
factors.
- Explain how you would
help a sports performer to reattribute to avoid learned helplessness
and to promote mastery orientation
- Attribute failure to controllable/
internal factors convince they can control part of future performances.
- Attribute failure to unstable
factors/ changeable factors/ aspects that are not permanent or enduring
e.g. include effort luck, tactics
- Use role models / significant
other/ leader coaches
- Use vicarious experiences/
to see those of similar ability succeed in the task
- Positive reinforcement/ encouragement/
verbal persuasion / positive feedback
- Raise self confidence/ self
esteem
- Enable success to be experiences/
give success/ enable positive outcomes/ achievable goals
- Control arousal/ calm them
- Use mental practice/ imagery
of successful movement
- Use goal setting that is specific
- Measures target/ goal
- Goals must be challenging
- identify the characteristic
of a “need to avoid failure” personality
- Innate personality characteristics/
natural traits/ enduring
- Avoidance behaviour
- Avoids challenges/ avoids
excitement/ avoids risks
- Takes unachievable challenges
- Avoids competition
- Lack confidence/ self efficacy
- Lacks persistence on task/
gives up easily
- Avoids taking responsibility
fro actions/ attributes success to external factors/ failure to internal
factors
- Dislikes/ avoids feedback/
dislikes evaluation avoids audience
- Competition affects achievement
motivation
- What factors affect the
formation and development of cohesive team in sport
- Selection of those who are
team players
- Environment of compromise/
players to respect on another
- Having a clear view of aims/
goals/ missions/ share the same goal
- Participants to share behavioural
norms/ similar outlook/ beliefs
- Credit for personal success/
highlight individual performance effects cohesiveness
- Overplaying team goals/ aims/
set appropriate goals
- The use of co ordination practice/
team building exercises
- Encouragement/ social support/
encourage friendship
- Reinforcement/ praise cohesive/
motivates behaviour
- Punishment/ drop non team
un cohesive behaviour
- Encouragement pf group identity/
belonging
- Clarification/ give individual
responsibility/ roles
- A leader who encourages teamwork
who leads how the team wants
- A spilt team up into small
subgroups/ combat the ringelmann effect by dividing into small groups
- Winning/ losing
- Explain how subjective
outcomes of a performance in sport can affect self confidence
- Subjective outcomes relate
to how the performer rates the performance/how he or she has done
- SC – Trait is the innate/
inbuilt/ natural tendency to be confident
- SC State is the degree of
confidence in a specific sports situation
- If outcome perceived to be
good then SC – Trait is increased
- If outcome perceived to be
poor/ a failure then SC – Trait is decreased
- Subjective outcome affects
competitive orientation/ level of competitiveness either positively
or negatively
- If outcome perceived to be
good then competitiveness is increased
- If outcome perceived to be
poor than competitiveness decreases
- Positive outcomes / SC –
Trait/ competitiveness increases will raise state sport confidence/
raise self efficacy/ will make performer more confident
- Negative outcome/ competitiveness
decreases will lower state sports confidence/ will result in avoidance
behaviour
- using examples from sport
explain three main factors that make the setting of goals effective
in sport
- Goals would be Specific –
directly linked to an outcome
- Measurable – An objective
aspect that is measured
- Goals should be achievable
– within reach/ attainable/ realistic/ get success
- Relevant – at the right
level/ challenging
- Time phased – include short
and long term objectives
- Evaluated – use of self
assessment reviewed
- Recorded – Records kept/
written account enable accountability
- How are process, performance
and product goals used to improve performance in sport?
Process
- Concerned with technique/
style
- Directs attention/ gives information/
targets to be more successful/ be able to progress with more effective
techniques
Performance
- Comparison with previous attempts/
judges against performances
- Improves times/ intermediate
results a stepping stone to improve outcome/ gives feeling of achieving/
satisfaction
Product
- Focus on end result/ to win
overall/ concerned with outcome of competition
- - Gives motivation long term
goal/ can be used to aim even higher in the future/ leader to progression/
used as overall aim/ maybe just out of reach to motivate
- Goal setting can raise self
confidence
- Goal setting can control arousal
levels
- Goal setting can motivate/
develop strategies to reach set goals
- Goal setting can direct attention/
focus efforts
- Goal setting enables success
to be experiences
- Goal setting can regulate
the amount of effort expended on a particular tasl/ ensures no wasted
effort.
- Outline Wiener’s model
of attribution. -
|
Internal |
External |
Stable |
|
|
Unstable |
|
|
- Giving internal stable attributions
means intrinsic qualities/ under your control that are not easily changeable/
fairly permanent e.g. ability
- - External unstable means
intrinsic but changeable reasons e.g. effort
- External stable means environment/
out of your control, reason that are unchangeable e.g. Task difficulty
- External Unstable means environment
by changeable. E.g. luck.
- Use Weiner’s model to
explain how attribution can affect motivation in sport.
- If reasons for failure are
internal stable – learned helplessness is the belief that failure
is inevitable/ failure has been reinforced/ can be de- motivate
- If reasons for success are
internal stable mastery orientation is having self confidence/ positive
outlook/ need to achieve/ high motivation
- If losing through emphasis
on unstable factors
- If winning motivate through
emphasis on internal factors
- Describe and explain what
is meant by the zone of optimal functioning
- An emotional/ affective response/
enjoyment/ satisfaction/ fulfilment
- Described as peak flow experience
- Associated with the elite/
very good performers/ good performance/ best of their ability
- High level of confidence/
sports confidence/ self efficacy
- Is relaxed/ lack of stress
response/ not anxious
- Ideal/ optimum level of arousal
of the performer/ high level of motivation that is under control/ high
level of inner drive/ self motivation
- Performer has maximum concentration
and effort/ focussed
- Appropriate attentional control
often narrow/ internal attention/ cue utilisation is good/ right amount
of cues
- Movements are automatic/ little
conscious control
- The more experience / able
to the performer higher arousal is need for ZOF
- Actual productivity =
potential productivity – losses due to faulty processes.
Using a team example from a sport
of your choice, explain the model shown in figure 2 and identify how
these faulty processes could have occurred.
- Actual productivity how a
team performer/ winning/ losing of a team depends on
- Potential productivity is
the sum of the players abilities/ how good they are/ what they are capable
of achieving
- Losses due to Faulty process
– team performer/ productivity is affect by social loafing/ lack of
individual motivation/ learned helplessness of individuals/ attributions
of failure to internal stable factors/ Ringlemann effect/ individual
performance decreases as group size increases
- Lack of identifiable roles
- Insufficient accountability/
individual efforts not recognised
- Team performance affected
by players not synchronising
- Injury/ illness of players
- Lack of team cohesion/ lack
of social cohesion/ disputes
- Insufficient incentives to
work together
- Inadequate leadership
- Poor team tactics/ strategies
- Too high/ too low level of
competition/ anxiety of team/ goal perceived to be unachievable
- Negative effects of an audience
- Environmental factors/ stressors
58. How would a coach seek to increase
a performer level of self-confidence or self-efficacy?
- Ensuring success/ give achievable
goals/ performance accomplishments
- Vicarious experiences/ show
someone else performing the task
- Using a role model of similar
ability/ age to motivate
- Encouraging/ verbal persuasion/
praise/ positive feedback
- Helping them to control their
arousal levels/ emotional control/ calming them down / reducing their
anxiety levels
- By encouraging positive attributions/
perceptions thinking positively
- Negative thought stopping
- Attributing positively attributing
failure to controllable factors
- Attributing success to internal
factors
59. What is mean by each of these
four terms?
- Extroversion
- Introversion
- Neuroticism
- Stability
- Extroversion – Affiliate
to other people/ outgoing/ sociable/ lively
- Introversion – Shy/ reserved/
prefers isolation form others/ nervous/ unsociable
- Neuroticism – Extreme emotions/
unreliable/ mood swings/ anxious/ unpredictable/ unstable
- Stability = Reliable/ predictable/
balanced/ calm/ even tempered/ controlled/ logical
60. Using examples from sport, explain
the Interactionist approach to personality and identify the limitations
of personality profiling
Interactionist
- Traits that are triggered
by environmental/ situations/ B-F(PE) social environment
- Involves a combination of
trait and social learning
- Typical responses may be affected
by circumstance
- Therefore behaviour is not
predictable
- Sportspeople personalities
change in different situations.
Limitations of profiling
- Profiling results too vague/
do not link cause and effect
- Results cannot be generalised/
lacks external validity
- Results lack ecological validity/
are not true to real life/ do not relate to sports performance
- Profiling too subjective/
results differently by different people/ unreliable interpretations
- Links between personality
and sport performance/ sport choice/ task persistence to tenuous
- Too many demand characteristics/
behaviour of performer may be altered due to profiling/ internally invalid
61. What makes an effective leader?
- Good communication/ listener
- Vision/ clear goals/ strong
mission/ ambitious
- Enthusiastic/ self motivated/
determined/ confident
- Empathy/ cant see point of
view of others/ high values
- High skill level in the sport
- Knowledgeable/ experienced
- Charismatic/ inspirational/
motivational
- Adaptable/ flexible depending
on situation/ good decision maker
62. Explain the different circumstances
in which an autocratic leadership style and a democratic leadership
style would be used
Autocratic
- When discipline/ control is
needed/ hostile groups/ newly formed group
- If there is a lack of time/
time to short for more democratic approach/ tasks that need completion
quickly
- For large groups when communication
is difficult
- In early cognitive stage of
learning/ novices or beginners
- For team player who generally
prefer training and instruction style/ game situations
- Males prefer autocratic style
- If in a dangerous situation/
have control of health and safety
- (Fiedler) Task style better
in situations that re extremely favourable/ positive and extremely unfavourable/
extremes of favourableness
- When task is clear/ unambiguous
- If leaders personality is
task orientated
Democratic
- When a group member can /
wish to participate in decision making/ those who prefer democratic
approach/ develop team work
- For more advanced performers
(who have knowledge to contribute)
- If demands of situation is
social (friendly match)
- When task demands greater
interpersonal communication
- If leader and group members
are well known to each other
- Females prefer democratic
- Task structure is not dangerous
- For small number/ individual
sports
- (Fiedler) in situations that
are moderately favourable
- If leaders personality tends
itself to be democratic.
63. Explain what is meant by cue utilisation
and how it effect on performance in sport.
- Use of relevant stimuli/ information/
signals from the environment
- As arousal increases attention
is narrowed/ perceptual narrowing
- Then arousal decreases
- If attention is too narrow,
can miss cue/ signals
- Narrow attention can help
concentration/ right decision made/ better reaction time
- Lowering arousal/ anxiety/
stress can help concentration
- Enter zone of optimal functioning/
peak flow experience/ effecting performance positively
- Low arousal can widen perceptual
field
- Widening perceptual field
could lead to missed cues
- Widening perceptual field
enables use of peripheral information