Introduction
to JOBMOD
A Federal-aid
Construction Spending
Income and
Employment Estimation Model
The FHWA is frequently asked
to estimate employment effects of Federal-aid program expenditures.
Such requests often occur during periods of legislative activity and
periods of economic recession.
Interest in employment impacts
of construction spending during periods of economic distress reflect
the widespread belief that highway and other public works investment
can be an effective economic stimulus mechanism. Highway construction
spending directly affects industries hit hardest by recession, notably
heavy construction, building materials, and durable goods manufacturing.
It is also frequently noted that Federal initiatives may counter the
pro-cyclical budgetary tendencies of other levels of government. Historically,
supplementary Federal highway spending programs were enacted by the
Congress in response to economic recessions in 1960-1961, 1969-1970,
1973-1975, and 1981-1982.
Evaluations of these programs
performed in the 1970s and 1980s provided the basis for employment estimates
supporting passage of ISTEA and contributed to the later development
of a direct construction employment model called Highway1, which was
used to address TEA-21 legislative concerns. More recently, a
new and improved employment estimation model called JOBMOD (ver.1.1)
was developed for the FHWA at the Boston University Center for Transportation
Studies. The JOBMOD model is available in electronic form to assist
transportation professionals and policy makers concerned with the economic
effects of Federal-aid construction expenditures.
JOBMOD is an economic input-output
model based on the U.S. Commerce
Department’s Benchmark Input-Output
Accounts of the United States modified to specifically reflect labor
and materials usage on federal-aid highway construction projects.
It estimates, for example, that an across the board increase in Federal-aid
highway construction spending of $1 billion combined with a state matching
fund ratio of 20% (yielding total expenditures of $1.25 billion), could
be expected to generate:
- A first-round of
employment benefits in the highway construction industry and materials
supplying industries totalling 19,585 person-years. These jobs
generate more than $570 million in worker incomes. JOBMOD estimates
12,453 jobs occur in the highway construction sector and 7,132 jobs
occur in equipment and materials supplying industries. In addition to
the substantial numbers of Construction jobs, first-round employment
impacts are particularly large in Transportation and Warehousing, Business
and Professional Services, Stone and Clay Products, Petroleum Refining,
Wholesale Trade, Fabricated Structural Metal Products, and Non-metallic
Minerals Mining.
- A second-round of
employment and income benefits can be expected to occur in the production
sector because of the additional demand for inputs needed to expand
output in industries that supply highway construction materials.
An additional 6,939 person-years of indirect employment generates incomes
totalling $215 million. Indirect employment is distributed across a
much wider array of industry sectors than first-round effects. In addition
to employment gains in Business Services, Transportation and Warehousing,
and Wholesale Trade, relatively large numbers of jobs also occur in
Primary Iron and Steel Manufacturing, Finance Insurance and Real Estate,
Automotive Repair Services, Machinery and Equipment, Crude Petroleum
and Natural Gas, Chemicals, and Rubber Products.
- Overall, the dollar
value of first and second-round goods and services produced by the additional
highway construction spending is $2.93 billion. This implies a
combined direct and indirect spending multiplier of 2.34.
- When direct and
indirect employment incomes are spent, a third-round of employment and
income benefits ripple through the economy. This is frequently
termed “induced” employment and reflects producer’s response to
an increase in consumer demand for all types of goods and services.
The total number of person-years of employment generated by this additional
spending is 21,052. Third round employment income is estimated
at $528 million. The largest employment gains occur in the service sector,
including Wholesale and Retail Trade, Business Services, Health Services,
Restaurants and Amusements, Educational and Social Services, and Finance
Insurance and Real Estate, and Communications. However, large
induced employment effects are also observed in Textiles and Apparel,
Construction, Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, Food and Kindred Products,
Printing and Publishing, Electric Equipment and Electronic Components,
Motor Vehicles and Parts, Paper and Allied Products, and Rubber Products.
- The dollar value
of goods and services produced across all sectors of the economy as
a result of the $1.25 billion increase in total highway construction
expenditure is $6.097 billion, implying an overall spending multiplier
of about 4.87. Employment income from first, second, and third-round
effects total $1.313 billion and the number of person-years of employment
generated is 47,576.
Of course this is only one
example of JOBMOD income and employment estimation results. The
magnitude of income and employment impacts can be expected to change
with the level of Federal-aid highway construction spending and the
amount of State and local matching funds. The incidence of benefits
will also vary with Federal-aid program composition since different
types of highway capital improvements have different labor and materials
intensities. JOBMOD is a national level model that provides industry
level employment estimates. It clearly demonstrates important
relationships between highway construction spending, employment and
business activity.
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